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chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Oxidation States

Negative and Positive oxidation state: The common oxidation states of these elements are – 3, + 3 and + 5. ...
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Atomic and Physical Properties of Group 15 Elements

Atomic and Ionic Radii Covalent and ionic (in a particular state) radii increase in size down the group. ...
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Group 15 Elements – Introduction

Group 15 Elements Group 15 includes nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth. As we go down the group,...
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Refining

Refining The process of purifying the crude metals is called refining. Some methods of refining are as follow: Distillation: This is very...
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Oxidation Reduction

Oxidation-Reduction Besides reduction, some extraction is based on oxidation particularly for non-metal. For extraction of chlorine from brine.
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Extraction of Aluminum

Extraction of Aluminum: Alumina Al2O3 is mixed with Na3AlF6 or CaF2 which lowers the melting point of the mixture and brings conductivity. Fused mixture is...
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Extraction of copper from cuprous oxide

Extraction of copper from cuprous oxide Copper is extracted mainly from copper pyrites (CuFeS2). The extraction involve the following steps given in flow sheet.
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Extraction of zinc from zinc oxide

Extraction of zinc from zinc oxide The reduction of zinc oxide is done using coke. The temperature, in this case, is higher than that in...
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Extraction of iron from its oxides

Extraction of iron from its oxides Oxide ores of iron, after concentration through calcination/roasting (to remove water, to decompose carbonates and to oxidise sulphides) are...
chemistry 12th class cbse notes

Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy

Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy: For any process, Gibbs free energy change (∆G) is given by When ∆H is the enthalpy change and ∆S is the entropy...