Oxidation States
Negative and Positive oxidation state:
The common oxidation states of these elements are – 3, + 3 and + 5.
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Atomic and Physical Properties of Group 15 Elements
Atomic and Ionic Radii
Covalent and ionic (in a particular state) radii increase in size down the group.
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Group 15 Elements – Introduction
Group 15 Elements
Group 15 includes nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth.
As we go down the group,...
Refining
Refining
The process of purifying the crude metals is called refining. Some methods of refining are as follow:
Distillation: This is very...
Oxidation Reduction
Oxidation-Reduction
Besides reduction, some extraction is based on oxidation particularly for non-metal. For extraction of chlorine from brine.
Extraction of Aluminum
Extraction of Aluminum:
Alumina Al2O3 is mixed with Na3AlF6 or CaF2 which lowers the melting point of the mixture and brings conductivity. Fused mixture is...
Extraction of copper from cuprous oxide
Extraction of copper from cuprous oxide
Copper is extracted mainly from copper pyrites (CuFeS2). The extraction involve the following steps given in flow sheet.
Extraction of zinc from zinc oxide
Extraction of zinc from zinc oxide
The reduction of zinc oxide is done using coke. The temperature, in this case, is higher than that in...
Extraction of iron from its oxides
Extraction of iron from its oxides
Oxide ores of iron, after concentration through calcination/roasting (to remove water, to decompose carbonates and to oxidise sulphides) are...
Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy
Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy:
For any process, Gibbs free energy change (∆G) is given by
When ∆H is the enthalpy change and ∆S is the entropy...